Penelope Lively & Going Back Essay

Jane retells the book ‘Going Back’ for us, and how she, now an adult with a family of her own, is looking back into her childhood memories, she has had to revisit Medleycott, as now her child home is being sold. She recalls her childhood memories of Medleycott, where â€Å"all summers are one hay making and raspberry time† and â€Å"all winters are one scramble across glass-cold lino to dress quickly. † Jane and her elder brother, Edward, live a peaceful life in the country. Their misunderstood father has been sent away to fight in the war and they are loved and cared for by Betty, their motherly figure. The children’s mother died whilst they were young and their father finds it difficult to understand their innocent childish ways. This shows us a strong border between the adult and children world. Lively has also displayed this border through Jane’s different perspective, how her images of live have changed now she is an adult. Lively has expressed this by describing the different characteristics belonging to child and adult, the different ways in which they speak, the differences in their languages and how adults and children both enjoy different surrounds. â€Å"We lived in the playroom and in the Garden† The way in which Lively uses different territories belonging to different characters, represents a strong border between the Adult and Child worlds. The children like to spend most of their time, when at Medleycott, in the garden. It is a place where they can retreat and live a world of their own. To Jane and Edward their garden is their paradise. Their innocence and naivety makes it seem like the perfect haven, The Garden of Eden. It is a safe place, where they have everything they need and they are free to do what they wish, within the garden borders. The adults within the book also have their territory. Betty has her kitchen, which is where she spends her time cooking, cleaning, washing and other household chores. Lively describes the Father’s territory in terms of the furniture within it. â€Å"His part of the house, beyond the glass door on the upstairs landing, had thick carpets and smelt of polish, you had to be careful not the knock over flowers† There is a substantial difference between his area and the children’s area compared to Betty’s kitchen and the children’s territory. The children find it easy to relax when they are in the Kitchen, but they have to be careful and smart when around their father. Lively has done this to show that there is a closer bond between Jane, Edward and Betty than with the Father and his children. This may be due to the death of the children’s mother, but Jane and Edwards father finds it difficult to communicate with them. With the war on, all of the adults are worried and careful, yet the children only see it as a game. â€Å"Standing on the lawn, staring up at those blue and white skies out of which Germans would come. We would misdirect them. Ah, we’d scupper them – London – pointing west, and send them storming. † The children see the war in the one-dimensional view that children do. They take every thing they hear literally, basically believing anything that they have been told. Jane and Edward do not understand the seriousness of the situation around them; all they have noticed is that â€Å"the war put an end to Betty’s Saturdays at the cinema. There was a war on, so you couldn’t have lots of sweets anymore, just one sixpenny bar of chocolate a week, and no more oranges or bananas. † Jane and Edward are not worried if they get a chocolate bar or not, they have their garden to play in, it is natural and simple, they don’t understand why the Adults are worried. The adult world is a very materialistic and ordered world, and they care about what will happen and that everything has to be right.

Music-Induced Affect as Treatment of Elderly Depression Essay

Abstract   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Depression in elderly patients is one of the most prevalent psychological problems today. However, research and knowledge regarding this subject is limited and those involved in the application of this knowledge to help elderly individuals experiencing depression are lacking in efficient strategies and training. This paper aims to explore the efficacy of inducing positive affect through music as a strategy in treating depression in elderly individuals. The paper focuses on the effectiveness of music alone as tool in treating depression based on its capability to induce positive affect. It is hypothesized that positive affect continuously induced via music within a set time-period will lessen signs of depression. Introduction Depression has recently been recognized as one of main psychological problems facing society today. Literature shows that treatment of depression needs to be specialized in terms of the population it addresses. Certain groups, such as adolescents, respond to certain treatments differently when compared to another group, such as the elderly. (Aryan & Alvidres, 2001; Von Kroff et al, 2001) Depression among the elderly has specifically been found to be rampant and mostly unchecked mainly due to the fact that it was regarded earlier on as a normal step in an individual’s aging. (Casey, 1994) The need for further research on the subject is stressed by the fact that treatments and solutions for depression among elderly individuals are studied only in areas wherein a majority of the population is in the late stages of life. (Bramesfeld, 2003) Also, research has shown that general practitioners involved in treating depression in the elderly need to have more training and information on how best to handle depression in older patients. (Rothera et al, 2002) Diagnosis of depression is also a problem with 70-90% of depressed elderly patients going undiagnosed. (Koenig, 1999) A new strategy being researched for its effectiveness in treating depression employs the use of music techniques. Hendricks et al (1999) showed the potency of music in treating adolescent depression mainly because of its ability to inspire a change in the individual’s emotions. Hanser & Thomson (1994) and Hanser (1990) studies have also shown promise in the use of music techniques to treat depression in older individuals. This paper aims to validate these previous studies but will focus only on the musical aspect of the treatment. Previous research included exercise, muscle relaxation techniques, and recall of experiences which could have confounded the results of the previous studies attesting to the effectiveness of music techniques. Research Question   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     The goal of this paper is to determine whether there is a significant relationship between music-induced affect and depression. Can positive affect induced by music reduce depression? It is hypothesized that positive music-induced affect has a significant negative relationship with depression. Methods   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The design of the study is experimental and random. Specifically, it makes use of a 2Ãâ€"2 between-subjects factorial design. One variable will be the music-induced affect which will have two levels in the experiment, presence and absence of music-induced affect. Negative music-induced affect will not be used for ethical reasons. The other variable will be the test scores of the participants assessing the intensity of their depression. This will have two levels, test scores prior to the application of the music technique and test scores acquired after application. The two variables contribute tot eh 2Ãâ€"2 factorial design. (Mann, 1949) Setting   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The study will be conducted in a laboratory setting within primary care facilities from which the participants will be gathered. Performing the experiment in a primary care facility will be more convenient especially because the participants involved are elderly individuals. The laboratory setting will control for confounding variables that could be present in a real environment. Population   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The research sample will be composed of individuals from age 65 onwards coming from primary care facilities and who have been diagnosed with depression (ranging from mild to severe). This is to avoid ethical and scientific concerns regarding clinically-induced depression. Data Collection The independent variable is the positive music-induced affect will be measured with the State Form of the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List-Revised (MAACL-R). (Zuckerman & Lubin, 1985) The depression level, the dependent variable, of the participants will be measured with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). (Beck et al, 1961) Participants will be randomly assigned to two groups. The experimental group will be administered with music sessions aimed at inducing positive affect. The music will be pre-tested on a different set of participants also with depression to check its validity in inducing positive affect. The control group will not be administered with music sessions and will only be administered the Beck Depression Inventory at the start and at the end of the experimentation period.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The experimental group will be administered the selected music once daily for a duration of four weeks. During the sessions, participants of the experimental set-up will be asked to clear their minds and to concentrate only on the music being played. The State Form of the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List-Revised will be administered before and after each session to ensure that positive affect was induced. The Beck Depression Inventory will also be administered to this group at the start and end of the four-week experimentation period to document depression levels. Data Analysis   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Collected data will be analyzed statistically with the use of a one-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA). The computed marginal means in the ANOVA will be the determining statistical value indicating the effect of positive music-induced affect on depression scores with the Beck Depression Inventory. Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Music as a technique employed in treating depression will provide healthcare workers and low-income families with a relatively cost-free strategy of helping elderly individuals experiencing depression. This is also a technique that doesn’t require much training or medical expertise in its administration. All one would need in order to be able to administer this technique is knowledge as to which music selections are prescribed and certified to induce positive affect. This technique, because of its simplicity and speed of application, could also be used as a supplementary strategy to medication, counseling and psychotherapies being employed to treat depression in elderly patients.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The research, however, has many limitations. The range of elderly individuals that will be available for experimentation will only be confined to a specific locality. Time constraints will also be an issue. Further study should be conducted on a larger sample size and over a longer experimentation period. Different music styles and variations can also be checked to ascertain maximum effectiveness of the treatment. Gender could also be checked as a factor.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Depression is indeed a psychological problem that afflicts today’s elderly individuals. Research regarding effective techniques has to be continued and expanded in order for healthcare workers to be able to best address this growing problem. References Arean, P., & Alvidrez, J. (2001). Treating Depressive Disorders Who Responds, Who Does Not Respond, and Who Do We Need to Study? Journal of Family Practices, 50(6), 529 Beck, A., Ward, C., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression, Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571. Bramesfeld, A. (2003). Service provision for elderly depressed persons and political and professional awareness for this subject: a comparison of six European countries. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 392-401 Casey, D. (1994). Depression in the elderly. Southern Medical Journal, 87(5), 559-563 Hanser, S. B. (1990). A music therapy strategy for depressed older adults in the community. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 9, 283-298. Hanser, S. B., & Thompson, L. W. (1994). Effects of music therapy strategy on depressed older adults. Journal of Gerontology, 49, 265-269. Hendricks, C., Robinson, B., Bradley, L., & Davis, K. (1999). Using music techniques to treat adolescent depression. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education & Development, 38(1), 39-46 Koenig, H. (1999). Late-life depression: How to treat patients with comorbid chronic illness.Geriatrics, 54(5), 56-61 Mann, H.B. (1949). Analysis and design of experiments; analysis of variance and analysis of variance designs. New York, Dover Publications. Rothera, I., Jones, R., & Gordon, C. (2002). An examination of the attitudes and practice of general practitioners in the diagnosis and treatment of depression in older people. International Journal Of Geriatric Psychiatry, 17, 354-358 Von Kroff, M., Katon, W., Wells, K., & Wagner, E. (2001). Improving Depression Care Barriers, Solutions, and Research Needs. Journal of Family Practice, 50(6), 529-561 Zuckerman M, & Lubin B. (1985) Manual for the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List-Revised. San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing

E Payment

Chapter 1. Introduction 1. 1 Electronic payment systems and their place in electronic commerce 1. 1. 1 E-commerce and electronic payment systems 1. 1. 2 Limitations of traditional payment systems in the context of online payments 1. 1. 3 The need for new payment systems designed for e-commerce 1. 2 User acceptance: understanding and issues 1. 3 Research objectives 1. 4 Research scope 1. 4. The role of electronic payments in customer e-commerce activities 1. 4. 2 Approach and methodology Chapter 2. Classification and characteristics of electronic payment systems 2. 1 Classification of payment systems 2. 1. 1 Introduction 2. 1. 2 Primary classification of payment systems 2. 1. 3 Further classification of account-based systems 2. 1. 4 Further classification of electronic cash systems 2. 1. Payment mediation services vs. payment systems 2. 2 Identifying the characteristics of payment systems 2. 3 Advantages and limitations of payment models 2. 3. 1 Advantages and limitations of the elect ronic cash model 2. 3. 2 Advantages and limitations of the acount-based model 2. 5 Conclusions Chapter 3. User survey of electronic payment systems 3. 1 User acceptance of electronic payment systems 3. 2 Survey of users’ attitudes towards characteristics of payment systems 3. 2. 1 Survey participants . 2. 2 Questionnaire design and analysis 3. 2. 3 Survey results and discussion 3. 2. 4 Implications for user acceptanc Introduction 1. 1 Electronic payment systems and their place in electronic commerce In the early 1990s the business and consumer world encountered a new way of conducting trade business, which was named electronic commerce (e-commerce). Over the years electronic commerce has evolved into a popular and acknowledged way of conducting business.While researchers are still trying to understand it and gauge its importance and turnover, e-commerce is changing and growing incredibly quickly, producing such extraordinary results from both business and customer perspective that its phenomenon cannot be overlooked by anyone who has ever thought of conducting business, whether in online or offline environments. With many organisations and people labouring in the field of e-commerce it has become very clear that ecommerce is here to stay and organisations and customers are trying to get maximum benefit from it.E-commerce has become especially important in two interrelated dimensions, namely business-to-consumer (B2C) and business-to-business (B2B) e-commerce. Business to-consumer e-commerce is enabling customers to have an increasing influence on products created, how products are customised, and how services are delivered. Ecommerce offers customers convenient shopping methods for products, information and services, electronic banking, and personal finance management.It is making it easier for consumers to find the desired products and services, match them more precisely to their requirements, and compare prices, (Vulkan, 2003). Several business models have been developed to support various customers’ needs, among them are online portals, content providers, transaction brokers and community creators. For business-to-business relations e-commerce facilitates the form of organisation where companies rely on suppliers and product distribution to respond more effectively to the changing market and customers demand and to achieve more efficient operation.This type of e-commerce relationships offers organisations the possibility to work in the direct contact with producers, giving more room for customization and control over business activities. This helps to reduce the costs significantly by removing ‘middlemen’ from the supply chain. Good examples of companies that employ this business model are Dell and Cisco, (Guttmann, 2003; Laudon & Traver, 2002). Consequences that e-commerce brings for business-to-business relationships are eliminating inventory, and operational and distributional costs that indirectly provid e customers with lower prices.E-commerce can help businesses to increase production flexibility by ensuring timely availability of components from suppliers, to improve quality of the products by increasing cooperation between buyers and sellers and reducing quality issues, to increase opportunities for collaborating with suppliers and distributors, and to create greater price transparency — the ability to see the actual prices on the market, (Laudon & Traver, 2002). In this way e-commerce responses to the customer demand of lower prices and greater convenience. 1. 1. 1E-commerce and electronic payment systemsThe most popular definition of e-commerce is based on the online perspective of the conducted business. E-commerce provides the capability of buying and selling products, information and services on the Internet and other online environments. As for any trading activity, the issue of safe and reliable money exchange between transacting parties is essential. In an e-comme rce environment, payments take the form of money exchange in an electronic form, and are therefore called electronic payments. Electronic payments are an integral part of e-commerce and are one of its most critical as pects.Generally defined, electronic payment is a form of a financial exchange that takes place between the buyer and seller facilitated by means of electronic communications. An e-commerce electronic payment is a financial exchange that takes place in an online environment, (Kalakota & Whinston, 1997). Electronic payment systems (EPSs) are summoned to facilitate the most important action after the customer’s decision to pay for a product or service – to deliver payments from customers to vendors in a most effective, efficient and problem-free way.The role of e-commerce electronic payment systems is pivotal for future of ecommerce, whose further growth depends on the timely development of EPSs. The development of new types of e-commerce purchasing relation ships and business models has created the need for new ways of money exchange and new EPSs. For instance, online auctions, (Ribbers & Heck, 2004), has spurred the necessity for personto- person payment systems to allow online money exchange between individuals. Certain types of information products and services require small payments and micropayments.Businesses would like to sell information content that costs very little, accumulating revenues with high turnover. E-commerce EPSs can be designed for selling specific types of products, for example for trading copyrighted online content, such as music. Another unforeseen earlier requirement is conducting e-commerce using wireless mobile devices, such as mobile phones or personal digital assistants (PDA). The need for paying with mobile devices has urged the development of payment systems for mobile electronic commerce, (Laudon & Traver, 2002).In addition, ecommerce provides the possibility to enhance current payment systems or substi tute them with online variants. The need for online payments was first addressed by using extant payment methods of the offline world for online payments. For example credit cards, originally intended as an offline credit instrument, have become the major payment instrument for ecommerce. As e-commerce and online purchasing grows, the weaknesses of credit and debit cards, and cheques are becoming more apparent. These limitations are discussed in section 1. . 2. The lack of the fit-for purpose payment mechanisms and infrastructure is one of the main restricting factors that hold back the growth and evolution of ecommerce, (Guttmann, 2003; Laudon & Traver, 2002; O'Mahony, Peirce, & Tewari, 1997). 1. 1. 2 Limitations of traditional payment systems in the context of online payments Three factors are stimulating the development of electronic payment systems: reduced operational and payments processing costs, growing online commerce and decreasing the costs of technology, (Kalakota & Whin ston, 1997).Reduction of costs is one of the major reasons for research and development of EPSs. The central impetus for ecommerce and e-business is to provide a more efficient service, primarily in terms of costs. In this light, paying online with traditional payment systems such as credit cards is rather paradoxical, given that credit cards are one of the most expensive of all available mainstream payment means for both end consumers and merchants, defeated perhaps only by paper checks, (Lietaer, 2002; Laudon & Traver, 2002). Several limitations of traditional payment systems in the context of e-commerce can be outlined.Existing payment systems, such as credit cards, are inadequate for retail customer digital business from the following viewpoints: Lack of usability. Existing payment systems for the Internet require from the end user to provide a large amount of information, or make payments using complex elaborated web site interfaces. E. g. credit card payments via a web site ar e not the easiest way to pay, as these require entering extensive amounts of personal data and contact details in a web form, (Kalakota & Whinston, 1997). Lack of security.Existing payment systems for the Internet are an easy target for stealing money and personal information. Customers have to provide credit card or payment account details and other personal information online. This data is sometimes transmitted in an un-secured way, (Kalakota & Whinston, 1997). In practice this happens even in spite of introduction of secure transactions mechanisms, such as Secured Socket Layer. Providing these details by mail or over the telephone also entails security risks, (Guttmann, 2003; Laudon & Traver, 2002). Lack of trust.Users tend not to trust existing systems with the long history of fraud, misuse or low reliability, as well as novel systems without established positive reputation. In the present situation, money loss by customers is quite possible when using existing payment systems, such as credit cards, for Internet payments. Potential customers often mention this risk as the key reason why they do not trust a payment service and therefore do not make Internet purchases, (Lietaer, 2002). Lack of applicability. Not all web sites support a particular payment method, thus limiting customers’ ability to pay.Credit cards work only with merchants who have signed-up to the services of the corresponding credit card company, and do not support direct business-to-business or interpersonal payments, (Kalakota & Whinston, 1997). Lack of eligibility. Not every potential customer with money and intention to pay can make use of certain payment methods. Not all potential buyers can obtain credit cards due to credit history limitations, low income or other reasons, (ibid). Lack of efficiency. Some payments over the Internet can be too small to be handled by existing payment systems, because of overheads included in the processing of payments and transaction.Credit cards are too expensive for effecting small payments and are unsuited for small transactions. The minimum fixed fee charged to the retailer for processing a transaction could even surpass the value of the goods sold, (Guttmann, 2003). High usage costs for customers and merchants. Existing payment systems use a rather expensive infrastructure to facilitate the payment process. Credit cards are very expensive for end users, not in the least because of the enormous and growing size of fraud, which amounts to billions dollars per year.This loss is invisibly re-financed by users by the higher costs of credit card services. In addition, credit card payments are still heavily paper-dependent. Most credit card bills are sent in a paper form to customers by post, and the bills are mostly settled by posting paper documents, like checks of giro payments, which makes the whole cycle rather expensive. As mentioned above, this means that resources employed in processing of credit cards transactions re nder them rather ineffective for small payments, because the high overhead of credit cards, (Laudon & Traver, 2002; Guttmann, 2003).In online credit card payments credit cards are not physically available for inspection by the payee, (this situation is referred as ‘card not present’). This imposes higher charges for merchants, because the chance of fraud is higher; see section 2. 1. 3 for more discussion. Credit cards have low finality of payments because users can refute or repudiate credit cards payments in certain situations. Moreover, financial regulations in certain countries, e. g. in the USA and the UK, place the risks of repudiation, fraud, or non-payment largely on the merchant and issuing banks, (Laudon & Traver, 2002; APACS, 2002).These issues make credit cards less attractive to merchants. Certain authentication schemes, e. g. Verified by Visa and SecureCode from MasterCard allow to shit fraud liability from merchant to credit cards issuing banks, and can ea se this burden for merchants, (see www. verifiedbyvisa. com and www. mastercard. com). However, end users can found themselves paying more for the cards issued by the banks to refinance bank’s losses due to fraud. There are more concerns related to the credit card use in online e-commerce that are responsible for reluctant users acceptance of credit cards and e-commerce.According to the report published by marketing research firm IDC, (Asmussen, Raschke, & Arend, 2002), almost half of European users of the Internet do not buy goods online because they either do not trust the Web merchants or fear their credit card details will not be secure. According to analysts, total credit card fraud rose to $4 billion in 2002 (i. e. $2 for every card issued). Industry estimates that the amount of online credit card fraud could be in the $5oo million range, (Laudon & Traver, 2002).Authorities believe that hackers have stolen more than one million credit card numbers from E-commerce sites. It would not be a surprise that many customers use their credit cards with reservations. A survey by Visa of 15 Banks from 12 EU countries in 2002 found that online credit card payments account for nearly half of all complaints. More than one in five of these came from people who had not even shopped on the Internet, but were billed for online transactions, (Philippsohn & Thomas, 2003). Privacy issues are also associated with the use of existing payment systems.There are cases when users’ identities (i. e. personal data such as credit card numbers, names and addresses) were stolen when hackers break into websites’ databases and obtain personal information of the customers. Fraudsters then attempt to use this information to open new credit and bank accounts using the stolen identity, (Philippsohn & Thomas, 2003). These and other issues with existing payment systems such as credit cards render them not very suitable for online payments. 1. 1. 3 The need for new payment systems designed or e-commerce Despite that electronic commerce is a growing phenomenon, its future development is, to a large extent, hampered by the lack of appropriate payment systems. Since most of business-to-consumer payments over the Internet are performed currently via credit cards, an admittedly problematic payment medium due to costs, security and trust problems, the need for new payment systems clearly emerges from the existing situation, (Lynch & Lundquist, 1996; Wayner, 1997; Laudon & Traver, 2002; Guttmann, 2003).Research and development in Internet-based payments tried to resolve this situation by conjuring numerous online EPSs, a good proportion of which has been put to use. This was possible due to the stimulating factors listed above, and in the first place due to the availability and reduced costs of the enabling technology. However, the new payment systems, purposely crafted for the Internet, also could not avoid their own share of problems. This has led to the r eluctant use of new online electronic payment systems, i. e. esulted in low user acceptance of newly introduced payment systems by customers, (see section 1. 2). User acceptance of electronic payment systems At this stage the situation with the development of online EPSs is far from ideal. A survey on electronic money developments by the Bank for International Settlement reports a rather low level of EPSs use, even in the most advanced countries, (BIS, 2000). According to the European Central Bank, the proportion of online payments among cashless payment instruments in the European Union is rather low.The report admits that although there has been a lot of discussion on the use of EPSs and their importance â€Å"it is still not a widely used medium†, (ECB, 2001). The lack of customer demand, the diversity of technological standards and the lack of support by financial institutions are mentioned among the reasons preventing the development of electronic payment systems, (ECB, 2003). Some experts estimate that about 85% of all Internet transactions are done with credit cards that were not originally designed for the Internet, (Philippsohn & Thomas, 2003).According to a survey by marketing research firm Jupiter Research, credit cards are still the dominant payment method for online purchases, accounting up to 95% of online transactions in the United States, (Jupiter Media Metrix, 2000). This demonstrates still low user acceptance of alternative electronic payment systems, designed specifically for e-commerce. 1. 2User acceptance: understanding and issues End user acceptance of such sensitive technology as money-circulating payment systems is the critical key aspect of the whole path of payment systems’ establishment.Without such acceptance no technology can successfully exist on the market, and payment systems are not an exception. According to Dillon & Morris (1996) user acceptance is â€Å"the demonstrable willingness within a user group to emplo y information technology for the tasks it is designed to support†. This definition can be enhanced with the understanding that the user perception of information technology (IT) can be influenced by objective characteristics of technology, as well as by human factors and interaction with other users and related parties.For example, the social information processing model (SIPM), (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978), suggests that attitudes towards technology are influenced by opinions, information, and behaviour of others. User acceptance is a pivotal factor determining the success or failure of any information system project, (Davis, 1993). Many studies on information technology report that user attitudes and human factors are important aspects affecting the success of an information system, (Davis, 1989, Burkhardt, 1994, Rice & Adyn, 1991). The arguments in section 1. and in the following paragraphs suggest that this is the case also with EPSs. Besides SIPM, a well-known approach to e xplaining and modelling user acceptance is the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), (Davis, 1989). TAM suggests that users formulate attitudes toward the technology that depends on whether they perceive the IT to be useful and easy to use. However, TAM does not take into account other factors that may be critical to user acceptance or rejection of such specific technology as EPSs, such as security, trust, privacy and involved risks.Extending the SIPM assumption, user acceptance of online EPSs could be affected by a number of factors and parties, creating a broader sense of the social context of EPSs in the Internet environment. User experience with an EPS can be influenced or manipulated by various aspects, such as marketing, publicity, the reputation of the bank behind the system, trust towards the company operating the system and technology behind the system, and convenience of the user interface, see also Guttmann (2003), Kalakota & Whinston (1997), Egger (2003). Figure 1. attempts to illustrate the social context in which parties and factors could possibly influence user perception and experience with electronic payment systems. These parties and factors should be taken into consideration when exploring issues of user acceptance of online EPSs. They are either required for a successful operation of a payment system (banks), its promotion (marketing organisations), or monitor and regulate its operation (government). For example, the company operating the payment service will have to address users’ concerns about security, privacy and trust.Users can be influenced in their experience by other parties than the operator itself, e. g. the bank or financial institution that facilitates the payment transactions, see Figure 1. 1. Customers can be influenced by the user interface, or by other parties involved in the payment service, such as technical partners. Since e-commerce EPSs operate in the Internet environment, the reputation and impression of the syste m can be easily communicated to other users via online communities, creating yet another social impact on the system.Therefore, social influences, e. g. opinions and behaviour of other users, like family and friends, and reputation of banks and the parties involved, should be taken into account for user acceptance of EPSs. This argument can be supported by above-mentioned SIPM, (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). Issues such as trust, usability, applicability, security, and convertibility are extremely important because they can influence subsequent decisions of people whether to use a payment system or not.There are several obstacles to user acceptance of EPSs: developers not only have to sell the service to potential users, they also have to convince the users to entrust their money to a third party institution, to rely on the payment system in their business and personal finance, and to use it frequently for convenience, reliability, specific applications, services and for a variety of o ther reasons. To achieve this high standard of user acceptance, the creators of a payment system should bear in mind user-related factors from the very beginning of the conception of the payment system.Designing for user acceptance of online electronic payment systems is thus the main issue put forward by research described in this thesis. An open challenge remains for designers and developers of novel Internet-based payment systems to meet user expectations, requirements, preferences and needs in design and operation of the systems. Resolving these issues is critical for the development and operation of new payment systems and future growth of e-commerce. 1. 2. 1User factors in payment technology The importance of user-related factors can be demonstrated in the example of the notorious problem of security of information systems.There are thousands of security mechanisms, matched with a growing number of hacks and security breaches, (Flynn, 2001, p. 61). However, the nature of secur ity issues is changing with the constant improvement of information technology. While security technology is becoming increasingly sophisticated and tamper-proof, experts in information security admit that user factors are the most important issues for security problems. The vast majority of all security issues in IT environments is caused or assisted by users inside organisations, rather than hackers and other utsiders. Security experts know many stories about people exchanging their passwords, or IT managers attaching notes with logins and passwords to their monitors, or about hackers finding these notes in the trash. To avoid this kind of mistakes, experts are talking about enforcing security policies in organisations, to be able to address user-related factors in security, (Flynn, 2001). Therefore, security practices have embraced user-related factors. This example helps to illustrate the importance of user-related factors in the design and operation of information systems.The f ollowing example illustrates a failure of a payment system due to neglecting to focus on user and market needs. The Chipknip â„ ¢ and Chipper â„ ¢ smart card payment technologies, (Nannery, 1998), were introduced in the Netherlands in early 90s. Both systems were intended to provide a way of paying small amounts in everyday transactions, which people would normally pay with cash. However, these two systems competed with each other for some time, being incompatible, so customers could not pay with the competitor’s card at certain shops, (BIS, 2001).Eventually, this created problems of interoperability and limited the user base for both systems. Another obstacle was that the card readers were installed in shops where people already had another method of payment – debit cards, which worked very effectively and efficiently and which were used by most people for all kinds of payments. In a way, Chipknip and Chipper duplicated the functions and applications of debit ca rds. On the other hand, the real need for Chipknip and Chipper for small payments at parking lots, vending, and public transport tickets machines was not met.A serious situation arose regarding the high costs of accepting Chipknip for merchants. As the result, the union of Small and Medium Enterprises in the Netherlands threatened to boycott Chipknip, (Het Financieele Dagblad, 2001). In this case, an important factor stimulating the development of EPSs was not met, namely the reduced operational and processing costs. Despite of a certain potential for uses acceptance of e-purse technology (Van Hove, 2004), this situation is changing slowly.All these issues led to a low acceptance of Chipper and Chipknip technologies. Chipper International decided to stop operations and support of Chipper in the Dutch market, (Libbenga, 2001; BIS, 2001); Chipper has fused with Chipknip, and while some issues have been addressed, the expected applications for this smart-card technology are yet to come . The example above helps to illustrate the complexity of human and marketing factors in the context of payment systems and their crucial influence on the eventual success of a payment system.Therefore, for successful design of electronic payment systems from the user perspective it is important to find out what user-related factors and systems’ aspects have the most direct impact on user acceptance and which of them can cause problems when neglected in design. 1. 3Research objectives 1. 4Research scope 1. 4. 1 The role of electronic payments in customer e-commerce activities The process of paying is an essential part of customers’ online buying activities. These activities are well described by the Consumer Mercantile Activities Model, (Kalakota & Whinston, 1997).The model comprises prepurchase interaction, purchase consummation and postpurchase interaction phases. The payment activity takes place within the purchase consummation phase, Figure 1. 2. â€Å"The purchas e consummation phase specifies the flow of information and documents associated with purchasing and negotiating with merchants for suitable terms, such as price, availability, and delivery dates; and electronic payment mechanisms that integrate payment into the purchasing process†, (Kalakota & Whinston, 1997). The buyer arrives to payment activities after identifying products of services to be purchased.The buyer and seller conduct then a mercantile transaction. In a mercantile transaction the buyer and the seller exchange information followed by the necessary payment. The payment methods they use should be mutually negotiated and agreed on (ibid). Therefore, in order to conduct a successful e-commerce mercantile transaction the buyer should at least be willing to use the payment method offered by merchants. From this viewpoint, user acceptance of e-commerce EPSs is critical for the completion of the purchase consummation phase and the whole purchasing process. It can be there fore bserved that the payment process and the user involvement in it are highly important for e-commerce activities. Scope of payment systems Business-to-consumer Payment Systems This research is focused on user acceptance of new payment systems in consumer ecommerceenvironments. The main focus of the presented work is therefore Businessto- Consumer e-commerce EPSs, which are designed with the main purpose to facilitate payments for consumer e-commerce. Taking into account the B2B systems would have made the scope too broad to handle within this research. Payment Systems designed for the WebCurrently, consumer e-commerce is done mainly via the WWW (Web) service of the Internet. The market for conducting e-commerce payments via wireless PDAs, mobile phones and other Internet services is still under development, (Bohle, 2001a), and therefore does not have a wide user basis and usage experience. Thus, in the scope are Web-oriented online e-commerce EPSs and Web e-commerce applications. Scope of payment tasks Because the scope of the defined business relations is Business-to-Consumer, the payment tasks in the focus of this thesis are related to consumer e-commerce and trade of goods and services.In these tasks there should be at least one 1) business party involved and 2) one physical person, who is conducting purchasing activities in an ecommerce environment. Scope of target activities These activities include those that are related to buying goods and services, and essentially represent consumer e-commerce. The scope of these activities is embracing a significant and, arguably, the most important part of the consumer e-commerce represented by B2C relations. Purchasing goods: tangible, require shipping, intermediated (by shipping companies). Purchasing information and software: intangible, immediate, not intermediated (by shipping companies). Purchasing services: intangible/tangible, not always immediate, can be intermediated (by service companies). The followi ng activities are therefore excluded from the scope because they are not in line with the defined scope of electronic payment systems, namely B2C consumer ecommerce. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) money payments and exchange.C2C payments do not belong to B2C e-commerce, (Figure 1. 3), e. g. personal auctions payments, debt settlement. Specific payment applications, for instance, gambling or adult-content sites. In this context the sites place specific requirements on B2C relations and userrelated factors, e. g. on privacy. Related activities Additional activities that have to be explored are the influence of pre- and postpurchase interaction phases, according to Kalakota and Winston (1997) on the user experience with a payment system on the whole.It is very likely that correct introduction,application and follow up of payment products and services in retail e-commerce are important for user acceptance of EPSs, and therefore the pre- and post-purchase interaction phases cannot be reaso nably disregarded when investigating the payment process. The user experience within these phases could affect their decision as to whether to use the e-commerce service at all, without even arriving at the payment process itself. Amount of money The minimum amount of money within the scope was chosen to be above â‚ ¬2.This means excluding small and micropayments. The nature of payment tasks in case of micropayments is different from higher amounts. For instance, users may wish to automate this kind of payments to avoid the need to authorize a payment of â‚ ¬0. 01 every time, while with bigger amounts they are likely to have control over each transaction. Furthermore, different researches show that at this moment there is little market for services that support small and micropayments, (Bohle, 2001b). In the focus are therefore small to medium sized payments, e. g. from â‚ ¬2 to â‚ ¬1,000.The upper payment limit is set to â‚ ¬1,000 to indicate that highest amount with in the scope of this research. The suggested range of payment amounts is typical for the current status of the domain and is similar to range of payments with existing offline EPSs, like credit, debit and smart cards, (Lelieveldt, 2001; Bohle, 2001a). Larger payments can be expected to raise different user acceptance issues, because of more user attention to risks, security, efficiency and other aspects of transactions with such amounts, (Humphrey, 1995). 1. 4. 2 Approach and methodologyThis research employs practices of the multidisciplinary scientific field of Human- Computer Interaction in order to research issues of user acceptance and user-related factors in online e-commerce electronic payment systems. Specifics of HCI research The nature of Human-Computer Interaction is such that it has to employ various scientific, research and design disciplines and cross borders between them for successful research. HCI is different from other disciplines in that it studies interaction bet ween people and artificially created artefacts, and not an independent natural phenomenon, like in other disciplines.This complex nature of HCI and its research goals compel researchers to adopt both inductive and deductive approaches to science, as described in Mackay & Fayard (1997). In the deductive approach the purpose is to generate a set of hypothesis that can explain real world phenomena. The scientist proposes a theory about a phenomenon, and formulates a hypothesis to be tested in an empirical research. In order to verify the hypothesis, an experiment is conducted, and with the revision of its results the theory is re-examined and an updated hypothesis is created.This approach is employed by the experimental study of this thesis. The inductive model aims to construct the most precise description of the real world, as opposed to explanation. The scientist observes phenomena in the real world without having a preconception or theory of what they are looking for. Then the scie ntist attempts to create a model of the world that explains the phenomena. By returning to the real world the model can be validated and changed if there are contradictions between the model and the studied phenomena.The qualitative study in this thesis employ this approach for requirements elicitation and creation of the design recommendations. The research process applied in this thesis, aimed to gain validated design knowledge, can be described as an iterative circular or spiral movement. This process is best described by Figure 1. 4, adapted from the work of Rauterberg (2000). This approach asserts to combine â€Å"analytical strength of empirical validation methods (e. g. , observation, experiment, inquiry, etc. with the synthetic strength of system design†. This triangle structure conceptualizes the three most important components of HCI research: â€Å"(1) the collection of ‘design relevant knowledge’, (2) the ‘interactive system’ in differen t possible representation forms, and (3) the several possibilities to represent a ‘user’ for (empirical) validation†, (ibid). The following sections describe how using diverse research activities helped to combine these components in the research reported in this thesis. Outline of the thesis The diagram in Figure 1. illustrates a combination of the research and design activities of this thesis. These activities included acquiring design knowledge on ecommerce EPSs, applying the knowledge to a commercial payment system designed by an industrial party, and empirical validation of the design knowledge. Chapter 2 presents a survey of literature on EPSs, which was necessary for understanding EPSs. The outcome this survey is a classification and a set of characteristics of EPSs. The importance of the characteristics of EPSs had to be confirmed with potential users of EPSs.Chapter 3 describes an investigation into the importance of the characteristics of EPSs to end use rs by means of a survey of consumer attitudes towards EPSs. The user survey helped to identify what characteristics should be given more attention in the design of EPSs. However, the knowledge about the importance of the characteristics did not inform how they should be realised in design of EPSs. To acquire a deeper understanding of these issues, a qualitative research in the form of a diary study was conducted, Chapter 4.The diary study aimed to understand how EPSs are experienced and perceived by users in the context of actual use and how EPSs can be designed to meet users’ needs. As the outcome of the diary study, implications for design of Internet-based payment systems have been derived and formulated as design recommendations. To ensure that the application of the design recommendations benefits user acceptance of EPSs, an experimental study was conducted, that is described in Chapter 5. This study helped to substantiate the validity of a subset of the design recommend ations.It was hoped to find the ideal situation where it is possible to apply the hypothesised design knowledge to a real-life system, rather than testing them in the laboratory, in order to achieve high realism of the results. Due to the participation of industrial parties, this situation has become available. The experimental study involved two parts: 1) a real-life EPS was redesigned in accordance with the proposed DRs, 2) an experimental comparison of the redesigned system with the old one has indicated improvements of user attitudes in several aspects, thus demonstrating the validity of the design recommendations.Chapter 2 2. 1 Classification of payment systems 2. 1. 1 Introduction This chapter presents a framework for classification and characterising of electronic systems that facilitate paying in an e-commerce environment. This framework is an attempt to describe and to relate the wide variety of the payment systems, with more than 150 payment mechanisms invented worldwide. This chapter also presents a survey of literature on EPSs, which has been a necessary step for understanding payment systems. The outcome of this phase of the research is a classification and characterisation of electronic payment systems. . 1. 2 Primary classification of payment systems The principal classification of EPSs is based on the form of money representation and the principle of money transfer. Existing payment systems can be divided into two groups: electronic cash mechanisms (or electronic currency) and credit-debit systems, (Medvinsky & Neuman, 1993). Electronic cash resembles conventional cash, when parties exchange electronic tokens that represent value, just as banknotes and coins determine the nominal value of conventional cash money.The credit-debit approach in the context of electronic payments means that money is represented by records in bank accounts, and this information is electronically transferred between parties over computer networks. Another terminologic al approach offered by Wayner (1997), based on the type of information that is exchanged, distinguishes between ‘account-based’ and ’token-based’ systems, which, respectively, corresponds to credit-debit systems and electronic cash in the definition of Medvinsky and Neuman. A similar distinction is found in Camp et al. 1995), who distinguish between notational and token forms of money. A different view on classification of EPSs is offered in Asokan et al. (1997), where payment mechanisms are classified based on the temporal sequence of money flows between the payer and receiver of the payments. Various attempts of classification of payment systems are also reported in Kuttner and McAndrews (2001), and Schreft (2002). These references are aggregated into the classification of electronic payment systems, illustrated in Figure 2. , which was first reported in Abrazhevich (2001b). The figure illustrates the further classification of EPSs, described in the foll owing sections. It provides examples of EPSs in each subcategory; some of these systems are described further in the text. The figure illustrates if the systems are only theoretical developments, that were only tested as limited pilots, and that have never been implemented for the commercial use. Payment mediation services that aggregate various EPSs in one payment infrastructure are described in section 2. 1. 5. 2. . 3 Further classification of account-based systems In the group of account-based systems, one can distinguish between 1) generic online EPSs that use simple account-based model for serving Internet payments, 2) systems that use the debit and credit cards model, and 3) specialized payment systems that, for instance, were designed for trading content online such as music. Some researchers consider credit cards systems as a separate group of payment models, (Medvinsky and Neuman, 1993), others consider them to be a variant of the credit-debit type.This classification adopt s the latter distinction. The basic principle of account-based systems is that the exchange of money between accounts is maintained by a payment service provider. Users can authorize charges against their EPS accounts, as they would do with usual bank accounts, though the ways of authorization are different for various systems. With the debit approach, the customer maintains a positive balance of the account and money is subtracted when a debit transaction is performed.With the credit approach, charges are posted against the customer's account and the customer is billed for this amount later or subsequently pays the balance of the account to the payment service. One of the most widely used systems for electronic payments is the debit card, which as the name suggest, is a clear example of a debit system, (Evans & Schmalensee, 1999). Debit cards combine the service of Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) cards and cheques. When customers pay with a debit card, the money is automatically de ducted from their checking bank account.In contrast with the credit cards, the spent money comes from the bank account directly. Many banks issue a combined ATM/debit card that looks like a credit card and can be used in places where credit cards are accepted. In this case, when users pay with a debit card, the payment will still be processed as a debit transaction. Other payment mechanisms that use the credit-debit model are Yahoo PayDirect, Pay- Pal. com, and theoretical payment projects like NetBill (Sirbu and Tygar, 1995), and NetCheque (Medvinsky and Neuman, 1993).A special group of account-based instruments that are currently in wide use are credit card systems. A great part of trade on the Internet is done using credit cards and these payment systems should not be overlooked. The biggest advantage of this approach is that the customers, who have already received credit cards offline, can use them directly for online payments. This also results in high scalability, as no addit ional installations are necessary. Credit cards provide a large customer base for merchants who accept them, thus their applicability is quite high.There are critical security issues associated with the use of credit cards in an online environment. When using credit cards over open networks, encryption mechanisms, such as widely used Secure Socket Lauer (SSL), in principle can prevent a hacker or eavesdropper from intercepting the customer's credit card number. There are some schemes that even hide card numbers from the merchant, providing protection against intercepting the card details from merchant databases or against fraud by the merchant. Nevertheless, these incidents happen regularly (Caunter, 2001; IFCC, 2003; Wales, 2003).It is important to note, however, that without some form of customer registration with a payment service or substantial proofs of identity, credit cards can be very risky to pay with and can be easily abused. Even encrypted Internet credit card transaction s do not include the owner’s signature, and anyone with knowledge of the customer's credit card number and expiration date can create a payment order. An important aspect of credit card payments in the online world is referred to as card-not-present (CNP) transactions.CNP transactions are those where neither the card, nor its holder are present at the point of sale, e. g. in orders by mail, telephone, fax or the Internet. The buyer does not have to demonstrate the physical presence of the card, or the card and the buyer do not have to be co-located. This imposes issues with card validation, security and fraud. CNP transactions are widely used in mail order/telephone order purchasing (MOTO) which also do not require co-location of buyer and seller. To secure transactions of this type, credit card companies ask for additional information, such as name, address, etc. that can be used to verify their identity, for instance, if the ordered goods should be mailed to the billing add ress associated with the credit card. Other information often required is the additional 3-4 digits code, printed on the back side of the card and not present in the credit card number. Merchants ask the customer to read this code from the card in a card-not-present order. The merchant then asks for verification during the authorization process. The issuer (or credit card processor) validates the code and relays the decision to decline or approve the transaction to the merchant.Nevertheless, the MOTO transactions incorporate limited protection against credit card fraud. Credit card CNP transactions could sometimes employ even less identity verification information. Since no signature involved in CNP transactions, the buyers can opt out of any order, if they claim they did not agree with the purchase, (O'Mahony, Peirce, & Tewari, 1997). The charges for orders cancellation are borne by merchants in the form of the higher costs for processing of CNP transactions. In addition, merchants could be liable for the whole amount of the disputed order, (APACS, 2002).Furthermore, because online payments are administered as standard credit card charges, the costs are too high to make this method unsuitable for payments below â‚ ¬1 and hence inefficient. Credit card companies are constantly lowering the minimum amount that can be paid to enable small payments, but charges for merchants still remain high. It should be also taken into account that cards are issued by banks and organisations, which after a screening, decide whether they can issue credit cards to certain customers.Customers with a low income, an imperfect credit history, might not be eligible for a credit card. This may restrict the customer base to a certain degree and limit user and merchant acceptance of credit cards as a payment method. 2. 1. 4 Further classification of electronic cash systems Electronic cash is stored in a digital form and serves as a cash substitute for the Internet or other informatio n systems. Electronic cash represents value in some form and can be spent with merchants, who deposit money in their own accounts or can spend it in other places.It can be represented by electronic ‘bills’ and ‘coins’, certificates, packets of data, or electronic tokens in one form or another. When using electronic cash systems, customers purchase electronic digital tokens from the issuing company using a conventional payment system, e. g. credit cards, electronic checks, or even paper currency (for example, via a reverse automatic teller machine which accepts cash, or when purchasing prepaid cards). Some of the systems allow converting electronic cash back into another form of money (Medvinsky and Neuman, 1993), which is very important for convertibility of the systems.Another distinction amongst electronic cash systems is between those that use smart cards for the storage of tokens and those where tokens reside only on user’s accounts and computer networks. The former are often called electronic purses (e-purses), the latter are sometimes addressed as ‘online cash’ or ‘Web cash’. Examples of e-purse electronic cash systems are CAFE project, (Boly et al. , 1994) and Mondex (Martin, 1994). Tokens in these systems exist and travel in the computer environment,for example, on a currency server or customers’ hard disk.Mondex is a smart card payment system that was designed to enable person-to-person as well as Internet payments, (Van Hove, 1999, p. 141). The card can be used to make small payments, store personal and application-specific information, and serve as a telephone card. Web cash representatives are E-cash, E-gold, Millicent (Glassman & Manasse, 1995), PayWord and MicroMint (Rivest & Shamir, 1996), and NetCash system (Medvinsky and Neuman, 1993). It has to be noted that these systems are mostly theoretical work and have not been implemented on the market. Systems that employ smart cards e. g. Chipknip, Chipper in the Netherlands, Proton in Belgium, and Visa Cash can be also placed in the category of electronic cash and also called e-purses, however, in representing money they hardly use tokens. In this case, the numerical data stored on the card is changed when a payment takes place. Judged by the principle of the operation and use they act like electronic purses. The value is stored on a card and if the card is lost, the money is gone, in a fashion similar to cash. It has to be noted that smart cards like Chipknip are not principally designed for Internet payments and are used mainly at point-of-sale terminals.There have been nevertheless pilot tests of facilitating paying over the Internet with Belgian Proton smart card EPS, but the use of Proton on the Internet is now discontinued. An important development towards standardisation of e-purses is establishing Common Electronic Purse Specifications with the goal to define requirements needed to implement a globally i nteroperable electronic purse program, while maintaining full accountability, (see www. cepsco. org). CEPS, which were made available in March of 1999, outline overall system security and certification.Being established by the key parties in electronic purse cards, and supported by organisations from over 30 countries, CEPS paved the way for the creation of an open global electronic purse standard. For cardholders it means that they will be able to use their electronic purse cards domestically and internationally with the knowledge that the card will be accepted wherever the acceptance mark is displayed. Visa Cash is an example of CEPS implementation, (see www. visa. com). Prepaid card EPSs can be also included in the same category of electronic cash, because the principle of their work resembles the use of e-purses, such as Chipknip.Users can buy a prepaid card for a specified amount. Prepaid card systems are specifically designed for Internet payments. Users can pay with a prepaid card by entering on merchant sites the card’s unique number, which corresponds to the card’s nominal. The value of the card is decreased by the amount paid to the merchant. To better understand what issues that surround electronic payment systems, it makes certain sense to introduce a definition of payment mediation services, which use existing payment systems as mediators to provide extra services. 2. 1. 5 Payment mediation services vs. payment systemsTo further refine the focus of this research, we have to make one important distinction, which is between payment mediation services and payment systems. This distinction particularly makes sense in the context of electronic and Internet payment mechanisms. Payment mediating services have appeared as a response to the imperfection and inefficiency of current payment systems for the Internet. They extend the services of the existing systems and operate as mediators between merchant, payment systems and users. Their goal is to help merchants to accept as many payment systems users could possibly want to use when paying over the Internet.In payment mediation services the existing payment infrastructure from many payments providers is aggregated to provide broader services, or to overcome shortcomings of the available payment options. Figure 2. 2 describes the relations between merchants, EPSs and payment mediation services. The difference between payment mediation services and payment systems can be summarized in that a payment mediation service is as an intermediary between payer, business, and payment system, while there is no such middle tire for payment systems. The payment process in this case is transparent to the users of a site.A mediating service provider ‘intercepts’ payments from users, processes them, and credits the account of the owner of the site when the authorization and transactions are completed. For example, there are numerous companies among mediating services provid ers that facilitate acceptance and processing of various credit cards. A special class of payment mediation services has emerged, that provides convenience for paying bills for businesses and end users. An example of payment mediation services is providing bill payments for end users and companies, for instance, utilities or telephone bills.Over a Web front-end provided by the billing systems, customers and companies can pay bills that are normally paid offline by paper cheques or bank transfers. Some systems even provide additional services such as automated accounting merged with online payment facilities. Syndication of payment services Another angle on payment mediating systems is viewing them as a form of syndication of payment services in an online environment. The notion of syndication originates from the entertainment world, where it forms the fundamental organizing principle.With the advent of the ‘new economy’ and the use of the power of Internet distribution, syndication can be recognised as an emerging model for e-commerce. In this context syndication would mean selling the same information to many different customers, who render and integrate it with other information in various value-adding ways and then redistribute it. According to this principle, businesses involved can play three or more roles: originators who create original content; syndicators, who collect and package digital information to meet specific customers’ needs; and distributors who deliver digital content to customers, (Werbach, 2000).In the context of online payments, payment mediation services can be seen as syndicators of the original services offered by payment systems. Payment mediation services syndicate e-commerce EPSs, offering merchants the way to accept a variety of payment systems. Examples of payment mediation services A good illustration a payment mediation service is Bibit Billing Services (www. bibit. com). This Dutch company specializes in Int ernet payment and billing services. The service supported about 70 payment methods from 18 countries by 2004.When customers want to pay on a Web site of a Bibit’s client, they select one of the provided payment methods. The payment process goes as follows: 1. A customer selects products on sale in a virtual shop. 2. For payment, the customer is then redirected to Bibit Payment Service. 3. Within Bibit Payment Service, the customer can select a payment system he or she would like to pay with, provided it is supported by Bibit. The customer makes the payment with the system of his or her choice. 4. After a successful payment, Bibit notifies the merchant that the order can be shipped and transfers the money to the merchant.The processing of the transactions, which is conducted entirely by Bibit, is therefore transparent to the customers of the site and the client company. The company business model, which utilizes a number of payment systems, relies on providing extra services t o facilitate payments, and therefore it fits into the definition of a mediating system. It is interesting to note that the service allows the use of micropayments, by accumulating charges for products like news, articles, stock and research reports, online games and charging users on a subscription basis.Examples of other payment mediation services are Orbiscom (www. orbiscom. com), iBill (Ibill. com), PayTrust, (www. paytrust. com), DataCash (www. datacash. com), PayNet (www. paynet. ch). Systems that conceal real customer’s credit card numbers by providing them a unique temporary card number for each transaction have gained certain popularity among payment mediation services. The customers can then use this unique number in a normal credit card transaction, and their real credit card will be charged.This temporary card number expires after every transaction and would not be approved for the subsequent use. The data of real credit cards of customers is not exposed to parties online in online transactions. In this case the payment mediation services are using credit cards infrastructure to provide extra security and anonymity (ABN-Amro e-wallet, O-Card by Orbiscom. com). By using these measures merchants expect to accept more secured payments without changing the way shoppers pay and without changing existing payment processes or infrastructure.The research summarized in this thesis is concerned mainly with payment systems and not with mediating solutions for existing payment infrastructure. Payment mediation services on the Internet emerged because of the absence of relevant payment solutions or have problems that prevent their successful use by merchants and users. Many of EPSs are probably transitory systems, unable to completely solve problems that appear in the context of the Internet paying process, because the problems originate in the payment systems they use; see discussion on PayPal. om in section 2. 4. While syndication of EPSs by payment med iation services provides in the end a better level of service than individual EPSs they use, it also places the payment mediation systems out of the scope of this research, which is exploring ways to design better individual EPSs. 2. 2 Identifying the characteristics of payment systems As observed in the example with Chipknip and Chipper in the previous chapter, there are a lot of factors that determine the success or failure of payment systems, and not all of them are of technical nature.As mentioned already, user acceptance depends on many issues, such as consumer choice, preferences, advertisement, a state of the market, etc. The discussion of diverse aspects of electronic payment systems can be found in many works on development and research of payment systems. Attempts to classify and describe the requirements and characteristics of payment systems such as security, reliability, convertibility, efficiency, traceability, and others can be found, among others, in the works of Med vinsky & Neuman (1995), Langdon et al. (2000), Lynch & Lundquist (1996), Wayner (1997).It has to be noted however, that these studies are mainly focused on technical aspects of electronic payment systems, which is not the only facet that is important in this field. Below the characteristics of payment systems are extended to account for user-related aspects of EPSs. These characteristics can be also used for assessment of payment systems, as described further. The list of characteristics of payment systems Anonymity, privacy This characteristic reflects the desire of users to protect their privacy, identity and personal information.In some transactions, the identities of the parties could be protected by anonymity. Anonymity suggests that it is not possible to discover someone’s identity or to monitor an individual's spending patterns. Where anonymity is important, the cost of tracking a transaction should outweigh the value of the information that can be obtained by doing so . As an illustration, when a customer pays with a debit card, the purchase is registered at the vendor and bank’s databases. It is possible to find out what amount was paid and what actually was purchased. Thus debit card payments are not anonymous.On the contrary, when one pays with cash at a shop or in a marketplace, no one can say by examining the cash that money came from the payer, as there is no direct information about this payer’s personality associated with the banknotes. Thus, cash is an anonymous payment system. Currently, the right of users to choose how their personal information is disclosed is viewed as privacy. There are privacy laws in several countries that limit usage of personal information by banks, authorities and other parties, including online businesses and payment systems, like European privacy acts or similar directives, e. . European Commission Data Protection Directive. Applicability The added value of a payment mechanism is dependent upon how useful it is for buying something. Applicability (or acceptability, as it is often referred in literature, (Medvinsky & Neuman, 1995)) of a payment system is defined as the extent to which it is accepted for payments at points of sale, or at online e-commerce sites in this case. For instance, cash is accepted widely and virtually everywhere in the offline world and thus has a very high level of applicability.Debit cards and credit cards have a very high applicability, as one can pay with them in a variety of places. The applicability of a payment system may vary from country to country. For example, in Germany and in the Netherlands cheques are no longer common due to the steady growth of other payment methods. However, in the UK and the USA cheques are still quite a common method of payment and the level of their applicability is quite high. Authorization type Authorization type is referred in the literature as the form of a control over the validity of transactions, (Lynch and Lundquist, 1996; Asokan et al. 1997). The authorization type can be offline or online. Offline authorization means that users of the system can exchange money while not connected to a network, without a third party mediating for the transaction. Paper cheques are an illustration of offli

Learning Style Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Learning Style - Essay Example Learning styles are unique aspect of a learner’s initiative to gain new knowledge and are important as basis for the mode of instruction that should be used. Learning Styles and Kinesthetic Learner Experiences The VARK questionnaire is a multiple choice type of test which provides questions about normal day-to-day activities which aims to identify the test taker’s learning style. Learning styles are â€Å"biological and developmental set of personal characteristics that make the identical instruction effective for some students and ineffective for others† (Dunn & Dunn, 1993, as cited in Dunn & Griggs, 1998). All answers are to be evaluated which would be the basis of the type of learning style the test taker prefers. There were items in the questionnaires in which I have to check two choices, but most of the time, I choose the answers similar or close to what I usually do. The answers are mostly involving body movements and actual involvement of the activity. In other words, I usually prefer to learn by doing it myself or with the guidance of others. As expected, I came about with the result â€Å"kinesthetic learner† which I think is very true according to my previous learning experiences.

Imploymet Trend in Iformation Systems Management feild Essay

Imploymet Trend in Iformation Systems Management feild - Essay Example But these are my observations. It would do me a lot of good to research what the industry really requires on one of its potential members. First off, I should realize what the Universities can do in order to make me the best of the IS employee out there since every great man probably started in one. Universities are aware of the importance of computers these days. Life simply cannot function without them. Therefore, there is a steady need for people that would know how to install, operate, program, and analyze the system, and Universities are prepared just to provide these personnel. Universities are offering varying computer science programs. The industry expects a lot from these. The industry expects these programs to adequately equip the graduates with knowledge on management systems analysis, computer concepts, data processing, data base design, file organization, data base management systems. The graduates in order to qualified also need to be very adept in planning and controlling of systems projects, analyzing information needs, using computer systems, organizing structures and information systems as well as hum an relations in systems development. The potential employee should at least understand the workings of statistics, and operations research. The graduates, when they have been studying still should have already been exposed to the industry through field projects. Finally, the University should have familiarized all the graduates it had produced with COBOL, a computer language and the students should be very knowledgeable with computer control and auditing. (Hinomoto, 405-406) Of course, a university education could only get one aspirant so far. He would probably land an interview but in the end, do not get hired. There are of course, qualities that should be inherent and learned by a person in order to fulfill the job requirements as well as please their bosses, prominent figures in the information systems management field. Knowing technical computer stuffs just won't cut it for everyone. Computers and their processes can change quickly in a blink of an eye, all it takes is one innovative idea and this will set forth numerous transformations in the field as well. Therefore, it is acknowledged that the job requirements and the associated knowledge or skills needed from the Information Systems professionals would change quite as rapid as well. The need to improve IS human resources is a highly prioritized and a person who could provide that would be most welcome to join the group of IS professionals. Specifically, an employed person of the information systems management industry should possess these skills. First is the technical specialty knowledge, for instance, knowledge on operating systems, programming languages, database management systems, networks, telecommunications and other more. And than, the person must be adept with technology management knowledge skills. These are concerned with how to organize these technologies in order to accomplish strategic business objectives. Then these lead us to the person needing sufficient business functional knowledge and skills. After all, most of these technologies are in use to achieve business goals. Therefore, they have to have business sense so they can reengineer business processes. Lastly, like every job in the world, or most of them anyway, they have to have

Prospects of Internationalisation of Frontex Research Paper

Prospects of Internationalisation of Frontex - Research Paper Example This paper tells that quite often firms are proved to lack the necessary support in order to expand their operations, a fact that can lead to the limitation of their profitability and may put under risk their existence in the market. On the other hand, even if a firm’s entrance in the international market is effectively supported, other issues can appear; the failure in identifying the risks that the specific initiative may include could lead the organization involved to severe damages. In fact, the above phenomenon is quite common; the responsibility of a firm’s management team for the specific problem cannot be doubted. in the study of Diamantopoulos, it is noted that ‘the methodological pitfalls of international research often lead to questionable research results’. Despite the above problems, the internationalization of firms remains the most effective strategy for the increase of their performance and for this reason it should be attempted if it is con sidered as achievable – except the case of severe operational or financial problems. The current paper examines the prospects of internationalization of Frontex, a manufacturing firm that has a significant presence in Jordan. Since its establishment the firm has achieved to increase its performance within its industry; however, gradually the internationalization of the firm has been proved to be unavoidable. The firm’s power to compete its rivals is going to be tested through its entrance in the French market. L. Kawan and J. Fayum, engineers, established Frontex in Jordan in 1986. For a long time, the firm’s operations were limited to a specific manufacturing activity: the production of drilling machines. Today, the firm's production has been expanded in a wide range of products – machinery - of similar use. The firm began its activities with about 25 employees.

Employee Privacy Rights in the Workplace Research Paper

Employee Privacy Rights in the Workplace - Research Paper Example Many employees stealing from companies send the purloined data to their personal e-mail account held at home or on the web. 21 percent burned the information onto CDs.† Due to these technological security issues, employers feel the need and have the capability to monitor their employees. E-mails, voicemails, the Internet, telephones, computers, etc. can be used for unregulated monitoring. Employees say this is an invasion of their privacy. Companies say this is a protection of their assets. The law is not clear on whether companies are invading employees’ privacy rights regarding information technology so policies must be set and employees must be informed on what is considered to be an invasion of company confidentiality or employee privacy rights. In cases of lawsuits and investigations of regulations, instant messages and e-mail messages are used as the main source of evidence. However, according to the 2004 Workplace E-mail and Instant Messaging Survey, â€Å"employers remain largely ill-prepared to manage e-mail and instant messaging risks.† It is still not common for businesses to have policies set regarding information technology. Studies have found that 35 percent of companies have any policies set in place and a mere six percent of businesses save electronic business records. However, among those businesses that do â€Å"The failure to properly retain e-mail and IM reflects employers’ failure to educate employees about e-mail and IM risks, rules, and policies. The fact that 37% of respondents either do not know or are unsure about the difference between an electronic business record that must be retained, versus an insignificant message that may be deleted, suggests that employers are dropping the ball when it comes to effectively manage e-mail and IM use.† Company data is not the only thing that is at risk when policies are not in place and implemented.

Human behaviour in the workplace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Human behaviour in the workplace - Essay Example According to Mullins (2010), a trait is a characteristic that is dominant in an individual that makes them behave in a particular manner. Traits have been greatly used ti study the personalities of individuals mostly in their workplaces. The theory majors on the differences between individuals and what makes them unique in their different ways (Uczynski and Buchanan 2009).   Further to that, the main purpose of this theory is to identify the differences between individuals based on their personalities. Traits theory differentiates individuals into cardinal traits, central traits, or secondary characters. Cardinal traits are traits that are evident in individuals whole life. The traits are unique to every individual to some extent they are identified on the uniqueness of the traits. Central traits are the obvious characteristics found in a person that can be used to define their personalities. Despite being unique to most individuals in most cases, to some situations they are not un ique. Last is a secondary trait; the trait exists in a person's life because of a particular attitude or preferences. They are not dominant in an individual's personality, but they occur under different circumstances (Uczynski and Buchanan 2009).Personality Questionnaires Theory.This theory focuses on using questions to measure the personalities of individuals. The questions used are based on a yes, no or I do not know answers. In workplace, questionnaires theory can be applicable in measuring the level of team building exhibited by the workers.

Marketing analysis and forcasting Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Marketing analysis and forcasting - Coursework Example The data available is of Hughes Travel PLC monthly travel data collected over the span of January 1986 – December 2010. It consists of two variables, namely: number of overseas visitors travelling to the UK and the number of UK residents travelling abroad. The time interval of data collection for both the variables is a month. As both the variable data is independent of each other, hence, we have two univariate time series. The data does not depict a particular trend. Analysis of UK Residents Time Series Figure 1 of appendix A shows the month wise distribution of UK residents travelling abroad. The graph shows that highest number of UK residents travel abroad during the months of August, September, and July. The graph shows that August has had highest number of UK residents travel abroad and it has happened consistently for the past 25 years. Similarly, figure 2 of appendix A shows the cumulative data on UK residents travelling abroad on a yearly basis. The data shows a steady rise in the number of UK residents travelling abroad with the highest being year 2010. Figure 1 in appendix A also depicts that UK residents travel least during the months of December, January, February. ... Figure 4 of the appendix shows that the rate of Overseas UK travels has risen considerably from the previous years and it was the highest in 2010 from the past 25 years whereas the years 2007-2009 saw the lowest travelling statistics. This probably has to do with the recession and the credit crunch during these years. Figure 5 displays the overseas travelling statistics distributed over the 25 years. The graph clearly shows that not once in the period of 25 years, the months of July and August have never seen a decline in the number of overseas travellers as compared to other months. Moreover, the graph also shows that as the years 2007-2009 were an all time low for overseas travellers, the number of travellers declined to their lowest during the July-August of these years as well. Forecasting Methods Several forecasting methods have been developed over the years and each of them have their advantages and accuracy. We have chosen the two most basic and common forecasting models: expo nential smoothing model, and ARIMA Model. Exponential Smoothing – This method is most common forecasting method for different types of time series data. It was developed by Brown and Holt. A basic approach towards time series modelling is to look at each observation as the combination of a constant and an error term. The value of constant would vary with time but is constant in a short interval of time. One way of modelling this is to assign greater weight to the most recent values of the constant as compared to the older observations also termed as moving averages, which is the basis of simple exponential smoothing. Following is the formula of simple exponential

Poetic form meter Essay Example for Free

Poetic form meter Essay Exploring how Allen Curnow portrays the search for inspiration in Continuum In the poem ‘Continuum’ by Allen Curnow, he tells us about his lack of inspiration. The theme of the poem revolves around poetic inspiration, and how he is unable to get inspiration. Allen Curnow uses a variety of stylistic devices to portray this. The title, â€Å"Continuum†, shows us that the problem Allen Curnow talks about, his lack of inspiration, is never ending and is continuing all the time, i.e., it is continuous. The first stanza signifies the first stage of poetic inspiration and also shows us Curnow’s unstable thoughts; â€Å"the roof falls behind†, as he is unable to compose poetry he is in a sense, rolling and falling all over the place so to speak. In the first line, the word â€Å"moon† is used as an image: a symbol for Curnow. As the moon is unable to shine on its own (it has to draw its light and energy from the sun), just like that Curnow depends on his writing to keep him going in life. The first stanza also tells the reader about the setting and time of the poem which is at night. The moon also evokes images of loneliness and a solitary state in that it is the only bright object in the night sky just like Curnow is the only (and therefore lonely) person awake at night. The poem has no definite rhyme scheme, suggesting to us that the poet is finding it difficult to express his thoughts, and he cannot tap into the world of imagination. The last line of the first stanza; â€Å"I am talking about myself.† Is a clear statement of his frustration and his inability to write. In the next stanza, Curnow is seeking connection with nature to find poetic inspiration. The line, â€Å"It’s not possible to get off to sleep†, tells the reader that the poet is unable to sleep which shows that something is troubling him. He tries to convey that it’s as tough to get rid of his thoughts as it is to get rid off the planet. Curnow goes out â€Å"barefoot†, to rid himself of the human material and wants to connect with nature†¦.

Evolution of the Glass Flight Deck

Evolution of the Glass Flight Deck The Australian Aviation had changed significantly since the late 1990s (Kain Webb, 2003). One of the major changes includes the introduction of the glass flight deck in Commercial Aviation. It has influenced the Australian Commercial Aviation significantly. This paper will analyse the transition from the standard flight instruments to the Glass Flight Deck. It will proactively discuss: The preliminary cockpits; the transition to the modern Glass Cockpit; and the modern Glass Flight Deck era. Overall, this paper argues that the Glass Flight Deck has brought in a massive change to the aviation industry. The initial phase of aviation was very undeveloped hence having few basic instruments (analogue) only. Cockpits in the distant past were generally comprised of limited instruments which provided basic information and had elementary controls only (Cockpit Design, 2012). There were inadequate controls and limited instruments in the cockpits, consequently increasing a pilots fatigue and pressure levels (Cockpit Design, 2012). Wiener and Nagel (1988) summarized that crew system designs and flight station layouts have frequently ignored the limitations and capabilities of the human operator. The key issue for any flight operations was the interaction of the flight crew with the flight deck (Analysis of pilots monitoring, 2001). It was difficult to correlate the data as the information provided was insufficient, hence resulted in crashes. Ideally, all the instruments on the panel should be large and visible for the pilots, as well as easy to be operated. Hence, evolving cockpits should be more feasible to use with digital instruments with large screens (Cockpit Design, 2012). For example, in lighter aircraft like Cessna, the pilot cannot rely completely on the instruments as it does not provide sufficient information. In addition, in poor weather conditions like rain and thunder storms, the aircraft cannot be flown as it is light weight and the instruments does not show the flight path. These days, the glass airplanes are mostly flown as it is more likely to find Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) on a commercial flight path, hence analogue instrumentation is used less frequently (Ison, 2010). The proficiency of delivering all the information that a pilot might need, had been a challenge during the history of aviation. As the range of desired information has grown, so have the size and complexity of modern aircraft as well, thus expanding even further the need to inform the flight crew without overloading the cockpit (Tomblin, 2014). Therefore, several change s were incorporated into the modern flight decks, making it better comparatively. The idea of developing basic flight instruments into a modern technology based flight deck has remarkably influenced Commercial Aviation. However, massive increase in the demand for new flight instruments resulted negatively for what the designers expected (Tomblin, 2014). The newly emerging instruments that display the performance of aircraft resulted in high-stress levels for the pilots. For instance, missed signals, misinterpreted information, limited detection of issues and failing to recognise the right instrument (Weiner and Nagel, 1988). The cockpits evolved after World War II when analogue instruments were replaced with Glass Panel system (Cockpit Evolution, 2015). In short period, the cockpits of lighter aircraft started the transition to automated instrumentation (Analysis of pilots monitoring, 2001). The newly trained pilots are feeling the automated flight deck easier to learn. The newer technology enables pilots to use innovative modes such as auto pilots, cruise, settin g flight paths, collision warning system, weather updates, landing with the help of Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) that analogue instrumentation does not offer (Impact of Glass Cockpit, 2006). Advances in the new evolving flight deck has proved to have many advantages so that it will be helpful for the pilots, especially to the transportation industry. In addition to it, the safety concerns have been reduced (Impact of Glass Cockpit, 2006). The use of the analogue instrumentation is easy and simple for the upcoming pilots to use, but there are some issues which need to be resolved. Thus, the modern Glass Flight Deck concept developed and proved to be heading towards its success. The Glass Flight Deck concept which was recently originated, gives a pilot improved safety when compared to analogue, and are easier to handle as well. They are more automated, more accurate and the integration of the controls are better than in traditional analogue systems (The Glass Cockpit Advantage, 2012). Most pilots these days are trained on the new aircraft which has the Glass Flight Deck which makes flying effortless and comfortable to use (Newman, 2014). The Glass Flight Deck provides advanced features like Traffic Collision Awareness System (TCAS) which is a short collision alert system, Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) and updated information about weather (Glass cockpits in General Aviation, 2011). For instance, the new Boeing 787 Dreamliner is incorporated with the new automated Glass Panel, and has many innovative features that allows a pilot to enjoy their flying experience. In addition, it has proved that the airlines save money while maintaining the competitive ness with the 777 (Innovative 787 flight deck, 2012). The newly installed technology helps the pilot feel more comfortable in flying taking advantages of the innovative features installed in the deck (Innovative 787 flight deck, 2012). The modern automated instrumentation is not only easier to fly but also consolidates accurate information from many sources. For instance, the glass panel shows the flight path on an easily read map and many more features (Sweet, 2002). Other advantages of Glass Flight Deck are: The accuracy of an automated instrumentation is much higher when compared to the analogue, and are very easy to read (What are the advantages and disadvantages of analogue and digital instrumentation?, 2017). The Glass Flight Deck uses colour schemes which can assist in cautioning the crew if there is a threat (Cockpit Design, 2012). The core colours used in the cockpit are green (normal), amber (caution) and red (alert or emergency). The Flight Deck has controls which are eas y to reach and in a place where it is noticeable. (Cockpit Design, 2012). In Conclusion, this paper has methodically evaluated the transition of the flight deck into the modern world. The Aviation industry has evolved with increased trend in technology. It has proactively discussed the evolution into the Glass Flight Deck. It has conveyed the situation prior to the change, the period of change, and the influence of it after the change has occurred. Thus, it has proved that the Glass Flight Deck concept has made a significant change in Commercial Aviation. Reference List Analysis of pilots monitoring and performance. (2001). Retrieved March 23, 2017, from http://picma.org.uk/sites/default/files/Documents/Background/Boeing%20Academic%202001%20Pilot%20Automation%20monitoring.pdf Cockpit Design and Human Factors. (2012). Retrieved from March 19, 2017, from http://aviationknowledge.wikidot.com/aviation:cockpit-design-and-human-factors Cockpit Evolution from the beginning to present. (2015). Retrieved from march 15, 2017 from: https://firstaerosquadron.com/2015/09/23/cockpit-evolution-from-the-beginning-to-present/ Glass cockpits in General Aviation. (2011). Retrieved March 15, 2017, from http://aviationknowledge.wikidot.com/aviation:glass-cockpits-in-general-aviation Impact of Glass Cockpit Experience. (2006). Retrieved March 19, 2017, from http://commons.erau.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1501context=jaaer Innovative 787 flight deck. (2012). Retrieved March 27, 2017, from http://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine/articles/2012_q1/3/ Ison, D. (2010). Plane and Pilot. Retrieved from: http://www.planeandpilotmag.com/article/is-glass-safer/#.WNjDOsB942w Kain, J. Webb, R. (2003). Turbulent Times: Australian Airline Industry Issues 2003, Australian Parliamentary. Retrieved from: http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp0203/03RP10 Newman, D. (2014). Universities to Probe Glass vs Analogue Cockpits. Retrieved from: http://www.australianflying.com.au/news/universities-to-probe-glass-vs-analogue-cockpits Retrieved from: https://www.quora.com/Why-arent-there-still-analogue-instruments-in-airliner-cockpits Sweet, W. The glass cockpit flight deck automation. IEEE Spectrum, 32(9), 0018-9235. doi:10.1109/6.406460 The Glass Cockpit Advantage. (2012). Retrieved from March 13, 2017 from http://blog.covingtonaircraft.com/2012/11/14/the-glass-cockpit-advantage/ Tomblin, P. (2014). Why arent there still analogue instruments in airliner cockpits? Wiener, E.L., Nagel, D.C. (1988). Human Factors in Aviation. London, United Kingdom: Academic Press.